The interesting question here is the extent to which the index model produces results that differ from that of the full- covariance (Markowitz) model. Figure 8.4 shows the efficient frontiers from the two models with the example data. (We emphasize again that the difference in these figures reflects different estimates of covariances, not differences in inves- tors’ actual ability to trade off risk against return.) We find that the efficient frontiers are in fact similar. For conservative port- folios (with lower volatility, toward the left side of the figure), the index model underestimates the volatility and hence overestimates expected performance. The reverse happens with portfolios that are riskier than the index.