A bit can take one of the two values: 0 or 1. If we interpret 0 as the value false and 1 as the value true, we can apply the operations defined in Boolean algebra to manipulate bitsThe NOT operator is a unary operator: it takes only one inputA circular shift operation (or rotate operation) shifts bits, but no bit is lost or addedArithmetic shift operations assume that the bit pattern is a signed integer in two's complement formatAlthough multiplication (division) of integers can be implemented using repeated addition (Subtraction), the procedure is not efficient.One of the advantages of two's complement representation is that there is no difference between addition and subtractionAll arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be applied to reals stored in floating-point format. Multiplication of two reals involves multiplication of two integers in sign-and-magnitude representationEEPROM can be programmed and erased using electronic impulses without being removed from the computerUse a very small amount of costly high-speed memory where speed in crucialCache memory is faster than main memory but slower than the CPU and its registersA printer is a nonstorage, device because the printed material cannot be directly entered into a computer again unless someone retypes or scans it.Magnetic storage devices use magnetization to store bits of dataInformation is stored on and retrieved from the surface of the disk using a read/write head for each magnetized surface of the diskThe tracks are separated an intertrack gap, and the sectors are separated by an intersector gapOptical storage devices, a relatively recent technology, use laser light to store and retrieve dataTo overwrite previous materials, a new technology allows a new type of disk called compact disk rewrit- able (CD-RW).The CPU and memory are normally connected by three groups of connections, each called a bus: data bus, address bus, and control busI/O devices are electromechanical, magnetic, or optical devices, whereas the CPU and memory are electronic devicescontroller or interfaces bridge the gap between the nature of the I/O device and the CPU and memoryIn the memory-mapped I/O method, the CPU treats each register in the I/O controller as a word in memoryThe DMA controller has registers to hold a block of data before and after memory transfer