In 1769 in a little town in Oxfords

In 1769 in a little town in Oxfordshire, England, a child with the very ordinary name of William Smith was born into the poor family of a village blacksmith. He received rudimentary village schooling, but mostly he roamed his uncle's farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold hills. When he grew older, William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings, and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. He then proceeded to teach himself geology, and when he was twenty-four, he went to work for the company that was excavating the Somerset Coal Canal in the south of England.

This was before the steam locomotive, and canal building was at its height. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. This job gave Smith an opportunity to study the fresh rock outcrops created by the newly dug canal. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England, all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. Smith used mail coaches to travel as much as 10,000 miles per year. In 1815 he published the first modern geological map, “A Map of the Strata of England and Wales with a Part of Scotland,” a map so meticulously researched that it can still be used today.

In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the “father of English geology,” it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. Ever since people had begun to catalog the strata in particular outcrops, there had been the hope that these could somehow be used to calculate geological time. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers. Quartz is quartz—a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions—there’s no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago.

As he collected fossils from strata throughout England, Smith began to see that the fossils told a different story from the rocks. Particularly in the younger strata, the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. Fossils are thus identifying markers for particular periods in Earth's history.

Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence. About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris.

Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or—300 million years later—in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite—the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian—will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.

結果 (中文) 1:

英国牛津郡的小镇在 1769 年与威廉史密斯非常普通的名称孩子出生于贫穷的家庭的铁匠。他收到简陋的乡村学校教育，但主要是他漫游他叔叔的农场收集了如此丰富的科茨沃尔德丘陵岩石中的化石。当他长大了时，威廉史密斯自学测量从他买了小积蓄和年龄十八岁师从当地教区的验船师的书。接着，他自学地质，和当他是二十四，他去在开挖在英格兰南部的萨默塞特煤运河在公司上班。这是在蒸汽机之前，运河建造正处于它的高度。公司建造运河运输煤炭需要测量师来帮助他们找到煤矿开采价值，确定的运河的最佳路线。这份工作给了史密斯有机会去学习新鲜的岩石露头由新挖运河。他后来类似的工作跨长度和宽度的英格兰，都在学习新的地层和收集所有他能找到的化石。史密斯曾经邮件教练旅行每年高达 1 万英里。1815 年他出版了第一次现代地质地图，"地图的地层的英格兰和威尔士的部分的苏格兰，"所以精心研制，它仍可使用今天。在 1831 年当史密斯最后被承认的伦敦地质学会为"英国地质学之父"，它是不仅为他的地图，甚至更重要的东西。自从人们开始目录中特定露头地层，一直希望这些某种程度上可以用来计算地质年代。但随着越来越多积累的地层被编录在越来越多的地方，很明显，岩石的序列有时不同从一个地区到另一个地区和没有岩石类型曾经打算成为一个可靠的时间标记在世界各地。即使没有差异问题的区域，岩石目前作为独特的时间标记的一个难点。石英是石英 — — 四个氧离子包围的硅离子 — — 200 万岁更新世石英和创建在 5 亿多年前的寒武纪石英之间根本就没有区别。他收集化石整个英格兰，史密斯开始看到这些化石告诉一个不同的故事，从岩石。特别是在年轻的岩层，岩石被经常如此相似，他很难区分地层，但他从来没有麻烦告诉分开的化石。虽然两个一致各阶层之间的岩石可能在一个地方是页岩和在另一个的砂岩，页岩或砂岩中的化石都是一样。一些化石经历数百万年，它们出现在很多阶层，但别人只发生在几个阶层，和几个物种有其出生和在一个特定的阶层内灭绝。化石地球历史上的特定时间从而确定标记。不只他们包含可能史密斯确定岩层的化石，他也能看到一种模式出现︰ 某些化石总是出现在更古老的沉积物中，而其他人开始被视为地层变得更近。通过遵循这些化石，史密斯得以投入相对时序的英格兰的地球的所有阶层。大约在同一时间，乔治 · 居维叶学习巴黎周围的岩石时作出了同样的发现。 很快它实现了这一原则的动物 （动物） 的演替是有效的不仅在英国或法国几乎是无处不在。其实花继承以及原则，因为植物显示具有相同的变换，通过时间作为做动物区系。石灰石可发现在寒武纪或 — — 3 亿年后 — — 中侏罗世地层，但三叶虫 — — 无处不在的海生节肢动物，它的诞生在寒武系 — — 永远不会发现在侏罗系地层，也不是一只恐龙在寒武系。

結果 (中文) 3:

1769在牛津郡，英国的一个小镇上，一个与威廉·史密斯的名字很普通，孩子出生在贫困的铁匠家庭。他收到了初步的乡村教育，但大多是在他叔叔的农场里收集，在科茨沃尔德丘陵岩石如此丰富的化石。当他长大，威廉·史密斯书自学测量他用微薄的积蓄买的，在十八他是当地教区的一个测量员学徒的年龄。他又自学了地质学，和他二十四岁的时候，他去了公司，是在英国南部开挖一条运河的工作。这是在蒸汽机车之前，运河大楼是在它的高度。公司建造运河运输煤炭需要测量员帮助他们找到值得挖掘的煤矿以及确定最佳的运河路线。这份工作给了史米斯一个机会学习新鲜的岩石露头的开凿新运河的创建。他后来在英国的长度和宽度的类似的工作，所有的研究新发现的地层，并收集所有他能找到的化石。史密斯用邮件马车旅行每年多达10000英里。在1815年，他出版了第一个现代地质图，“英格兰和威尔士的一部分，苏格兰的一部分，”地图如此仔细研究，它仍然可以使用今天的地图。1831当史米斯终于由伦敦地质学会公认为英国地质之父”，“这不仅仅是因为那张地图，而且更为重要的东西。自从人们开始目录的地层特别是露头，有希望能以某种方式被用于计算地质年代。但随着越来越多的堆积地层编录在更多的地方，它变得清晰，岩石序列也因地区的不同而不同，没有岩石类型是否会成为世界各地的一个可靠的时间标记。即使没有区域差异的问题，岩石提出了一个独特的时间标记的困难。quartz-a石英是硅离子周围有四个氧离子有没有差异的二百万年前的更新世石英和石英在5亿多年前创立的寒武纪。当他从英国各地收集化石地层，史米斯开始发现化石与岩石不同。特别是在年轻的地层中，岩石通常是如此的相似，他有麻烦区分地层，但他从来没有麻烦告诉化石分开。在两个一致的地层之间的岩石可能在一个地方是页岩和另一个砂岩，在页岩或砂岩的化石总是相同的。有的化石经历了数百万年，它们出现在许多地层，但其他人只发生在几层，和一些物种灭绝他们出生在一个特定的岩层。因此化石是地球历史上特定时期的标志物。史米斯不仅能识别由化石，它们所含的岩层，他也能看到新出现的一种模式：某些化石总是出现在更古老的沉积物，而另一些人则开始被视为较近的地层。通过化石，史米斯能够把所有阶层的英国的地球相对时间序列。大约同一时间，乔治·居维叶作出了同样的发现在研究巴黎周围的岩石。很快就意识到这种动物（动物）继承有效，不仅在英国或法国但几乎无处不在。它实际上是一个植物的植物演替的原则，因为植物表现出相同的转换，通过时间的动物群。石灰石可能在寒武纪or-300万年后的侏罗纪，但三叶虫，寒武纪诞生无处不在的海洋节肢动物不会在侏罗纪地层中发现的恐龙化石，也不。