Self-efficacy theoryBandura’s (1997) self-efficacy theory is another possible theory applicable to the study of self-talk thathas yet to be fully embraced by researchers interested in understanding self-talk. Bandura (1997, p. 3)defined self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action requiredto produce given attainments”. Strengths of self-efficacy theory are its testable predictions and parsimony.Bandura (1997) proposed a number of sources for efficacious beliefs: (a) previous performanceaccomplishments; (b) vicarious experiences; (c) verbal persuasion; and (d) interpretation ofphysiological and affective states. Of particular relevance to self-talk is the third source of efficacyinformation, as the origin of verbal persuasion can be from others as well as the self. The importance ofthe credibility of the source of persuasion should be noted, however. That is, Bandura proposes thatpersuasive sources that are viewed by the recipient as being knowledgeable, and possessing taskexperience and expertise as having greatest persuasory potential. At a superficial level, it would seemthat elite athletes may be perfectly positioned to benefit the most from persuasory self-talk.Although verbal persuasion has been proposed to be a limited source of self-efficacy, Bandura (1997)has suggested that persuasive statements can be a useful adjunct efficacy source. Recent research offerssupport to this proposition. Wise and Trunnell (2001) varied the order of performance accomplishment,vicarious experience and verbal persuasion efficacy sources for a maximal bench press task. When theverbal persuasion statement given by a third person followed performance accomplishment, an increasein self-efficacy was demonstrated. It was suggested that the persuasive statement offered reinforcementto beliefs formed following a performance accomplishment. It must be noted, however, that the source ofthe persuasive message was not self-talk but rather was given by a certified strength and conditioningresearch assistant.Rather than a source of self-efficacy, as described up to this point, it is possible that self-talk may playthe role of a mediator within the confidence related construct’s relationships. Drawing from Bandura’s(1997) predictions, it would be hypothesized that self-efficacy will impact on athletes’ emotionalexperiences via thought control (which could be operationalized to a limited extent as self-talk).Although Hardy, Hall et al. (2001) found initial support for a link between self-talk (valance anddirectional motivation interpretation) and core affect, the theory-based mediatory role of self-talk has notbeen tested.In fact, very limited self-talk research has been conducted with a focus on self-efficacy theoryalthough it is possible to interpret previous self-talk studies as offering very preliminary support for the92 J. Hardy / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 (2006) 81–97application of the theory. For example, although self-efficacy was not measured, the beneficialperformance effects of positive (‘I can’) self-talk (Van Raalte et al., 1995) might be explained in terms ofincreased efficacy. Furthermore, Weinberg, Grove, and Jackson (1992) reported that tennis coachesfrequently cited the promotion of positive self-talk as an efficacy building strategy. Landin and Hebert(1999) used varsity standard tennis players in a cue word, single-subject design study. Althoughincreases in self-efficacy were found, this was not the primary purpose of the study and so this increasewas not tested statistically. More recently, Hardy et al. (in press-a) found preliminary support for apositive association between self-efficacy to perform a crunch sit-up task and the valance, as well as thedirectional interpretation dimensions of self-talk. To date, there has yet to be an in-depth examination ofself-talk’s possible relation with self-efficacy. Self-efficacy theory warrants explicit examination inrelation to self-talk. This is because both instructional and motivational aspects of self-talk mayinfluence self-efficacy. That is, self-talk may not only help increase athletes’ confidence that they canachieve sporting goals, but may also be useful in offering instruction on how to achieve such goals.Future research not only needs to explicitly address relatively basic research questions, such as,establishing the causal direction of a self-talk–self-efficacy association but also explore more appliedaspects of this theoretically derived relationship. Perhaps most pressing of these is how should athletesmost effectively employ self-talk when attempting to boost their self-efficacy?