3. Music as a multimodal emotional signalWhen speaking or singing emotionally, emotional facial expressions and gestures are often combined with auditory signals of emotion, creating a powerful multimodal affective experience (De Gelder and Vroomen 2000; Thompson et al. 2008). Indeed, researchers are increasingly recognizing the important role of movement in the communication of emotion in music. Singers frequently use facial and body movements to reinforce or supplement emotional messages conveyed in music (Thompson et al. 2005). Visual cues associated with body movements may also nurture a sense of emotional connection between musicians and audience members (Kurosawa and Davidson 2005).Body movements provide an important source of expressivity even in the absence of sounded music.Davidson (1993) asked musicians to perform excerpts of music in a deadpan, projected and exaggerated manner while their performances were video recorded. Silent videos of these performances were then presented to experimental participants, who provided judgments of expressivity based on the visual information alone. Marked differences in body movements were observed between the deadpan and exaggerated performance conditions, and judgments confirmed that such movements provide reliable signals of expressivity.Facial expressions also provide viewers and listeners with emotional information. Livingstone et al. (2009) recorded singers with motion capture or electromyography (EMG) as they imitated phrases of emotional singing. All singers were shown audiovisual recordings of sung phrases performed with happy, sad, or neutral emotional expressions and were asked to imitate these recordings. Singers made clear and reliable facial movements during their imitations, supporting the emotional message conveyed by the sonic dimension of vocal production. Empirical studies have confirmed that such facial movements significantly influence emotional interpretations of music (Thompson et al. 2005, 2008). Facial expressions provide a powerful supplement to vocal signals of emotion because they can occur not only during vocal production but also before and after it. Pre-production facial expressions and gestures function to prime the intended emotion for listeners, facilitating accurate interpretation and encoding. Post-production facial expressions and gestures reinforce a stable representation of the emotion that was conveyed during vocal production.4. Theories of music and emotionWhat features of music are capable of inducing emotional responses, and what is the basis for this capacity? Can specific properties of music trigger emotional responses?