2. Brief historic overviewDonders (

2. Brief historic overview
Donders (1868/1969) formulated a way to investigate human information processing
by demonstrating that some tasks take longer to initiate than others. He proposed
a stage insertion/deletion method in which a relatively simple task could be made a
bit more difficult by requiring participants to do an extra ‘computation’ before
executing a response. By carefully manipulating this extra computation, Donders
reasoned that the time needed by this computation could be deduced by subtracting
the time to initiate the easier task from the time to start the more difficult task, much
like comparing the latency to generate the outcome of the sum 3þ4 with that of the
sum 3þ4þ5. To implement this general method in more detail, Donders defined
three characteristic tasks that differed in the processes needed to correctly fulfil the
task requirements. Type-a reactions/tasks were simple RTs reflecting only sensory
584 P. M. C. Lemmens et al.
and motor processes. The b-type reactions were choice RTs with two stimulus and
two response alternatives (including discrimination and response choice next to the
sensory and motor processes of the a-type task), whereas the type-c reactions were
similar to a go/no-go paradigm (with discrimination processes but no response
choice). This way the duration of, for instance, the response–choice process could be
estimated by subtracting response times of c-tasks from b-tasks. This method of pure
stage insertion was the first processing stages approach to choice RT (Sanders 1998).
However, difficulties were found creating sufficiently different type-b and type-c
tasks as it appeared that both types of tasks required response choice. To overcome
the methodological as well as statistical criticisms on Donders’ subtraction method,
Sternberg (1969) defined the additive factors method (AFM, sometimes also referred
to as additive factors logic, AFL) that assumed, like the subtraction method of
Donders, that response-time latencies consist of the sum of the intervals that a
sequentially ordered modular set of processing stages take to translate a stimulus
into a response and start executing this response (Sanders 1998). Each of these stages
takes care of processing a certain aspect of the stimulus or response, possibly
influenced by an experimental manipulation. The benefit of the AFM over Donders’
method were the statistical assumptions that Sternberg formulated, creating a solid
statistical framework in which experimental results from factorial designs could be
interpreted in only a single way. Interactions between two (or more) factors signified
that all factors acted upon the same information processing stage whereas additive
effects implied that each involved factor influenced a different stage. Thus, during
the heydays of the AFM around seven different stages were proposed or discovered,
among which the stages of feature extraction, stimulus identification, response
selection and motor programming received most attention and consensus (Gopher
and Sanders 1984, Sanders 1980, 1983, 1990, 1998).
However, these statistical premises, including ones derived from the basic
assumptions, were violated quite easily. For instance, the stage-robustness criterion
(Gopher and Sanders 1984), a derived assumption arguing for constancy of the stage
structure over many variations (including number) of factors over experiments, was
violated using stimuli typically used in experiments employing stimulus–response
compatibility paradigms (Ridderinkhof et al. 1995, Sanders 1998). Dual-route
architectures were proposed (de Jong, Liang and Lauber 1994, Kornblum et al. 1990,
Ridderinkhof et al. 1995) to overcome the limitations that the AFM imposed on
SRC experiments.
3. Stimulus–

結果 (中文) 1:

2.简要的历史概述东德斯 (1868年/1969) 制定方法来研究人类的信息处理通过展示一些任务采取启动比别人更长的时间。他提议可以在一个相对简单的任务阶段插入/删除方法通过要求参与者要做一个额外的计算前会有点更困难执行响应。通过仔细地操纵这额外的计算，教育学按此计算所需的时间可能会由此减去的理由时间着手从时候开始更加艰巨的任务，更容易像比较生成与成果的总和 3þ4 的延迟时间总和 3þ4þ5。落实这个一般的方法的更多细节，教育学定义正确履行所需的过程在不同的三个典型任务任务要求。类型一反应/任务是简单的 RTs 只反映感官584 P.M.C.集团基因产品 et al。和电机的流程。B 型反应选择 RTs 与两个刺激和两个响应备选方案 （包括歧视和反应选择下一步感觉和运动过程的一个类型 （任务），而 c 型反应类似于去不去 （与歧视进程但没有响应范式选择）。这种方式将此期限延长，例如，响应 — — 选择过程估计减去 c 任务从 b 任务的响应时间。这种纯方法stage insertion was the first processing stages approach to choice RT (Sanders 1998).However, difficulties were found creating sufficiently different type-b and type-ctasks as it appeared that both types of tasks required response choice. To overcomethe methodological as well as statistical criticisms on Donders’ subtraction method,Sternberg (1969) defined the additive factors method (AFM, sometimes also referredto as additive factors logic, AFL) that assumed, like the subtraction method ofDonders, that response-time latencies consist of the sum of the intervals that asequentially ordered modular set of processing stages take to translate a stimulusinto a response and start executing this response (Sanders 1998). Each of these stagestakes care of processing a certain aspect of the stimulus or response, possiblyinfluenced by an experimental manipulation. The benefit of the AFM over Donders’method were the statistical assumptions that Sternberg formulated, creating a solidstatistical framework in which experimental results from factorial designs could beinterpreted in only a single way. Interactions between two (or more) factors signifiedthat all factors acted upon the same information processing stage whereas additiveeffects implied that each involved factor influenced a different stage. Thus, duringthe heydays of the AFM around seven different stages were proposed or discovered,其中的特征提取、 刺激识别、 响应阶段选择和电机编程收到大部分注意力和共识 （Gopher和桑德斯 1984 年，桑德斯 1980 年，1983 年，1990 年 1998 年）。然而，这些统计的处所，包括那些来自基本假设，很容易受到侵犯。例如，阶段的鲁棒性判据（gopher 和桑德斯 1984年），一个派生的假设为恒常性阶段的辩护许多变化 （包括数字） 的实验中，因素的结构违反使用通常用于在实验中采用刺激 — — 反应的刺激兼容性模式 （Ridderinkhof et al.1995年，桑德斯 1998年）。双路由体系结构，并建议 (de Jong，梁 Lauber 1994 年，科恩 et al.1990 年，Ridderinkhof et al.1995年），克服 AFM 强加的限制SRC 实验。3.刺激 — —

結果 (中文) 3:

2。简短的历史概述
东德（1868 / 1969）制定的方式来研究人类信息加工
证明有些任务需要更长的时间来启动比别人。他提出了一个阶段
插入/缺失的方法，一个相对简单的任务可以通过要求参与者在
执行响应做额外的计算困难
点。通过小心地控制这些额外的计算，东德
推断，以此计算所需的时间可以减去
时间启动容易的任务从时间开始更艰巨的任务了，多
好比延迟产生的结果总和的3þ4，和3的
þ4þ5。更详细地实施这一方法，定义
东德三不同特征的任务需要正确履行
任务要求的过程。A型反应/任务很简单RTS只反映感觉
下午584点，莱门斯等人
和运动过程。B型反应选择RTS两刺激和
两反应的替代品（包括识别和反应选择旁边的
在A型任务感觉和运动过程），而C型反应
类似一个go/no-go范式（与歧视的进程却毫无反应
选择）。这样的时间，例如，响应–选择过程可以
从b-tasks减去C-的任务响应时间估计。这纯粹
方法阶段的插入是第一个加工阶段的方法来选择RT（Sanders 1998）。
然而，困难是找到足够的B型和C型
创建不同的任务似乎需要的反应选择任务类型。为了克服
方法以及统计对东德的加减法，
斯腾伯格（1969）定义的附加因素法（AFM，有时也被称为加性因素
逻辑，AFL）认为，像
东德的减法，响应时间延迟的时间间隔的总和，
有序的处理阶段模组采取翻译刺激
到响应并开始执行此响应（Sanders 1998）。每个阶段的
负责处理的刺激或反应的某一方面，可能
通过实验操作的影响。的AFM在东德
方法的好处是，斯腾伯格制定的统计假设，创造了坚实的
统计框架，从析因设计的实验结果可以
只在一个单一的解释。之间的相互作用的两个（或更多）因素所指
所有因素作用于相同的信息加工阶段，而添加剂
效应暗示各有关因素影响的不同阶段。因此，
大约七个不同的阶段的AFM时期提出或发现的过程中，
其中特征提取，刺激识别阶段，反应
选择与运动规划最受关注和共识（Gopher
和桑德斯1984，桑德斯1980，1983，1990，1998）。
然而，这些统计的前提，包括来自基本
假设的人，很容易被侵犯。例如，该阶段的鲁棒性标准
（Gopher和桑德斯1984），派生假设争论的阶段
恒常性在许多不同的结构（包括数量）在实验因素，是
违反使用通常采用的刺激反应相容性–
范式实验刺激（它等人。1995，桑德斯1998）。双路由
架构提出了（德容，梁和劳伯1994，科恩布卢姆等人。1990，它
等人。1995）克服对
SRC试验施加的AFM的局限。
3。刺激–