CRUSHING OF ALUMINUM CLOSED CELL FOAMS:DENSITY AND STRAIN RATE EFFECTS的中文翻譯

CRUSHING OF ALUMINUM CLOSED CELL FO

CRUSHING OF ALUMINUM CLOSED CELL FOAMS:
DENSITY AND STRAIN RATE EFFECTS
I.W. Hall, M. Guden* and C.-J. Yu

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716 *Izmir Yuksek
Teknoloji Enstitusu, Izmir, Turkey

Fraunhofer Center-Delaware, 501 Wyoming Road,
Newark, DE 19716
(Received October 1, 1999)
(Accepted in revised form April 11, 2000)
Introduction
Potential applications of metal foams include light weight cores for sandwich panels, shells and tubes
where the foam can increase the resistance to local buckling, increase the impact resistance, and
improve the energy absorbing capacity of the structure [1,2]. This latter property offers potential uses
in transportation applications where, for example, foam-filling of the hollow sections of automobiles,
such as fenders, may reduce damage and injuries resulting from impact accidents. For this type of
application, aluminum foam is more suitable than a polymeric foam, because it deforms plastically
under impact and with essentially no spring back, preventing further damage [3]. Other important
advantages of using aluminum foams over polymeric foams include high fire resistance and insensitivity to cold and hot weather and humidity [3].
Impact accidents produce loading rates which are higher than those of static or quasi-static rates and
which may significantly alter mechanical response of the materials. Therefore, in designing with
metallic foams as energy absorbing fillers, mechanical properties are needed for strain rates corresponding to those created by impact events. Quasi-static mechanical behavior of metallic foams has
been fairly extensively studied and reported, e.g. [3–5], but data concerning high strain rate mechanical
behavior of these materials are, however, only just becoming available and are rather sparse [6,7]. This
study was initiated, therefore, to study the high strain rate mechanical behavior of a range of metallic
foams, and to compare it with quasi-static behavior and, hence, determine any effect on energy
absorbing capacity. Microscopic observations were also made in order to clarify the deformation
mechanisms involved during crushing of the foam.
Material and Testing Methods
The metal foam investigated in this study was manufactured by the Fraunhofer Center - Delaware, using
a patented powder metallurgical technique [8]. One of the advantages of this method is that it is possible
to manufacture complex structures to near net shapes. The foam was prepared using 6061-Al alloy
powder and TiH2as the foaming agent and was supplied as rectangular plate (50 mm thick and 100 mm
wide) with a typical closed cell structure. The cell size varied somewhat through the thickness and
Scripta mater. 43 (2000) 515–521
www.elsevier.com/locate/scriptamat
1359-6462/00/$–see front matter. © 2000 Acta Metallurgica Inc. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S1359-6462(00)00460-7
resulted, therefore, in a slight density gradient. Typical cell sizes were 4 –5mm in the mid-sections and
2–3mm near to the external surfaces.
Quasi-static compression tests were conducted using a displacement controlled Instron machine at
an initial strain rate of 1.5310
23
s
21
. High strain rate tests were conducted using a compression-type
Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB), also known as a Kolsky Bar. Briefly, in this technique a
cylindrical specimen is mounted between the long incident and transmitter bars, while a shorter striker
bar is used to impact the end of the incident bar. This impact creates a compressive pulse which travels
down the incident bar and into the specimen which then deforms as it is sandwiched between incident
and transmitter bars.
Conventionally, the strains measured by strain gages on the incident and transmitter bars are then
used to determine strain rate, strain and stress in the specimen using one dimensional elastic wave
analysis [9]. However, tests on foams violate several of the fundamental assumptions of this type of
analysis: for example, the volume does not remain constant during testing and the elastic wave velocity
depends on the density which itself changes during the test. Nevertheless, and bearing in mind that these
are non-standard tests with limitations, it is found that conventionally-reduced SHPB foam data
resemble the stress-strain curves which would be anticipated from quasi-static tests. Consequently, and
also since an acceptable alternative means of data presentation has not yet been developed, the data are
presented as engineering stressvs.engineering strain curves.
High strain rate tests were conducted on the foam at strain rates up to;2.0310
3
s
21
. The strain
rates involved in automobiles during impact accidents are most frequently in the range between;13
10
2
and;1310
3
s
21
and the investigated strain rates are, therefore, relevant to impacts involved in
such accidents.
The cylindrical foam specimens were 18mm in diameter and 12mm tall. Some scatter was observed
in the data (see Fig. 1 below) but was not reduced by the use of larger samples. The diameter of the
samples was slightly less than that of the bars (19mm) and, due to the small Poisson’s ratio of the foam,
specimen diameters during deformation never exceeded the bar diameter within the studied strain levels
up to;60% strain. The relatively large diameter of the SHPB used was advantageous, since larger
volumes of foam could be tested, thus reducing statistical scatter somewhat. By conducting tests on
identically sized specimens in the Instron, any significant effect of specimen volume on the measured
flow stress was avoided.
Flow stresses reported below were determined at 10% strain since a) severe initial stress drops were
noted in many of the tests and b) an inherent feature of the SHPB apparatus is that flow stress values
Figure 1. Quasi-static eng. stress vs. eng. strain curves for samples of two different nominal densities.
ALUMINUM FOAMS 516 Vol. 43, No. 6
at small strains, such as the yield strain, can not be determined due to the absence of stress equilibrium
in the early stages of the test.
Foam blocks with average densities of 0.34, 0.47, 0.57 and 0.82gcm
23
were used. Specimens were
core-drilled through the thickness direction of the foam blocks and then individually weighed and
measured in order to calculate the actual and relative densities before testing. The relative density,r*,
is calculated as:
r*5
rf
rm
3100% (1)
where f and m refer to the foam and precursor (matrix) alloy respectively. The average relative densities
of the four foam blocks were, therefore, 12.6%, 17.4%, 21.1% and 30.4% respectively.
Results
Typical quasi-static compressive engineering stress-strain curves from 3 samples of each of the lowest
and highest density foams are shown in Fig. 1. It is seen that the flow stress is a strong function of
relative density and the curves show the typical shape which may be divided into three regions, 1) linear
elastic region, 2) collapse region and finally, 3) a densification region in which the properties approach
those of fully-dense alloy. It is also seen that, for the low density foams, a load drop occurs after the
initial elastic extension while the higher density ones exhibited no load drop. Also, stress oscillations
occur in the collapse region of low density samples while the higher density ones showed an essentially
monotonic increase in stress throughout the tests. The flow stress in the collapse region increased as the
relative density increased, as expected, but the rate of densification was also higher in the denser
samples. Strains in excess of 60% were easily achieved in all cases.
Foams were then tested in the SHPB and Fig. 2 shows typical stress-strain curves for foams of three
different densities tested at 2310
3
s
21
. Again, the flow stress values of the foam are seen to be a strong
function of relative density although it is also noted that the areas under the stress strain curves, which
scale with the energy absorbed, do not scale linearly with the density. The respective areas under the
curves were calculated between 5% and 25% strain, the latter being the maximum strain obtainable at
the lowest strain rate in the SHPB, and the data are plotted as a function of density in Fig. 3. Fig. 4
shows data for foams, with individually measured densities of 0.52gcm
23
, tested over a range of strain
rates from quasi-static to 2310
3
s
21
and up to;25% strain. Even when minor variations in density
Figure 2. Stress vs. strain curves at 2310
3
s
21
for samples of three different (individually measured) densities.
ALUMINUM FOAMS 517 Vol. 43, No. 6
are removed, there is still no unequivocal effect of strain rate within this strain range and the areas under
the curves, were approximately equal. The absence of marked strain rate sensitivity is in agreement with
other observations for this and other aluminum alloys [10,11].
The sequence of deformation events was recorded during quasi-static compression testing and
several frames of a typical record are presented in Fig. 5. The time at each frame is marked and the
compression loading axis was horizontal. Frame 1, 0s, shows an undeformed region containing several
cells. As soon as compression starts the thinnest sections of cell walls approximately parallel to the
compression axis start to buckle, 20s. In the later stages of deformation, frames at 90s and 120s, cell
walls normal to the compression axis tear due to the induced tensile strains. It may also be noted that
deformation is highly inhomogeneous and that cells to the left are completely undeformed while
adjacent ones are almost totally closed up.
Microscopic examination of cell walls showed clear evidence of the original powder particles, Fig.
6; the walls were made up of many particles sintered together confirming that complete melting had not
occurred. These surfaces also exhibited particles which were identified by EDS measurements as being
rich in Ti (arrowed in Fig. 6). The
0/5000
原始語言: -
目標語言: -
結果 (中文) 1: [復制]
復制成功!
破碎的铝封闭孔泡沫材料:
密度和应变率 EFFECTS
I.W.大厅、 M.Guden * 和 C.j。玉

机械工程系,特拉华大学,纽瓦克,DE 19716 * 伊兹密尔 Yuksek
Teknoloji Enstitusu、 土耳其伊兹密尔

夫琅和费中心-特拉华州、 怀俄明州路 501,
纽瓦克,DE 19716
(收到 1999 年 10 月 1 日)
(接受修改过的形式在 2000 年 4 月 11 日)
介绍
金属泡沫材料的潜在应用包括重量轻内核的夹芯板、 壳和管
在泡沫可以增加局部屈曲的抗性,增加抗冲击性能,和
提高的能量吸收能力的结构 [1,2]。这后者的属性提供了潜在的用途
在运输应用程序在哪里,例如,泡沫充填空心部分的汽车,
如挡泥板,可能减少损害和伤害影响事故引起的。对于这种类型的
应用程序中,泡沫铝是比聚合物泡沫,更适合,因为它产生塑性变形
冲击下,基本上是没有春天回来,防止进一步损害 [3]。其他重要
使用泡沫铝在聚合物泡沫的优点包括高耐火性和不区分对寒冷和炎热的天气和湿度 [3].
影响事故产生加载速率高于那些静态或准静态的费率和
的可能极大地改变了材料的力学响应。因此,在设计与
泡沫金属作为能量吸收填料,应变率对应于创建的事件影响那些需要的力学性能。泡沫金属材料准静态力学行为有
已经相当广泛地进行了研究和报道,例如 [3-5],但数据关于高应变率机械
这些材料的行为,然而,只变得可用,相当稀疏 [6,7]。这
展开研究,因此,研究的高应变率力学行为的一系列的金属
泡沫材料,并将与准静态行为进行比较,并因此,确定任何对能量的影响
吸收能力。显微镜的观察也作了阐明变形
机制所涉及的泡沫破碎时
材料和测试方法
在这项研究调查的泡沫金属由弗劳恩霍夫中心-美国特拉华州,使用生产
专利的粉末冶金技术 [8]。这种方法的优点之一是它是可能
制造复杂的结构,以附近的净的形状。采用 6061 铝合金制备泡沫
粉和 TiH2as 的起泡剂和作为矩形板提供时 (厚 50 毫米和 100 毫米
宽) 与一个典型的封闭的细胞结构。单元格的大小多少有些通过厚度不同和
动态母校。43 (2000 年) 515-521
定位的 www.elsevier.com//scriptamat
1359-6462/00 / $ — — 见前面的内容。© 2000 acta 金属学报公司出版了由爱思唯尔科学有限公司版权所有.
PII:S1359-6462 (00) 00460-7
导致,因此,轻微的密度梯度。典型的单元格的大小是 4 – 5 毫米的各节中期和
2 — — 3 毫米靠近外部表面。
准静态压缩试验是使用一个控制位移 Instron 机在
1.5310 初始应变速率
23
s
21
。高应变率试验是使用的压缩类型
拆分霍普金森杆 (SHPB),也被称为科尔斯基栏。简单地说,在这种技术
圆柱试样安装之间的长事件和变送器的酒吧,在一个较短的前锋同时
酒吧用来影响事件栏的末尾。这种影响将创建一个压缩脉冲的游记
下来的事件栏和入试样然后变形作为它夹在事件
和变送器酒吧。
常规,事件和变送器栏上粘贴应变片的应变,然后
用于确定应变率、 应变和应力在标本使用一维弹性波
分析 [9]。然而,测试在泡沫上的违反几个这种类型的基本假设
分析: 例如,体积不是固定的在测试和弹性波速
取决于密度本身在测试期间的变化。尽管如此,并铭记这些
非标准测试的缺陷,它发现常规地减少 SHPB 泡沫数据
类似于应力-应变曲线,将预期的拟静力试验。因此,和
既然数据演示文稿可以接受的替代手段已经不尚未被开发出来,数据也在
提出了作为工程 stressvs.engineering
高应变速率进行了测试的泡沫在应变率达 ; 2.0310
3
s
21
。 应变曲线。应变
订房服务所涉及的期间影响事故汽车最频繁地是在范围之间 ; 13
10
2
和 ; 1310年
3
s
21
和调查的应变率是,因此,有关的影响所涉及的
这种事故。
圆柱泡沫标本在直径 18 毫米,12 毫米高。一些散点图观察到
中 (见图 1) 的数据,但不是减少较大样本的使用。直径的
样品是略低于的酒吧 (19 毫米),并且,由于小泊松比的泡沫,
试样直径在变形过程中的从未超过栏内研究的应变水平直径
达 ; 60%应变。较大直径 shpb 实验使用的是有利的因为大
可以测试卷的泡沫,因而某种程度上减少统计散点图。由上进行测试
具有相同大小标本在英斯特朗,任何显著影响试样体积的测量
流动应力,避免.
下文报告的流动应力测定 10%应变时由于一) 严重的初始应力滴
注意到在许多测试和 b) 固有特征的 SHPB 装置是那流动应力值
图 1。准静态工程应力和工程应变曲线样品的两个不同的标称密度。
铝泡沫 516 第 43,卷号 6
小菌株,如屈服应变,不能确定的应力平衡缺失
在测试的早期阶段
泡沫块的平均密度为 0.34、 0.47、 0.57 和 0.82gcm
23
使用了。标本
核心钻透了厚度方向的泡沫块,然后单独重和
测量,以在测试之前计算的实际和相对密度。相对密度,r *
作为计算:
r * 5
rf
rm
3100%(1)
f 和 m 指的泡沫和前体 (矩阵) 合金分别。平均相对密度
的四个泡沫块了,因此,12.6%,17。分别为 4%、 21.1%和 30.4%.
结果
典型准静态压缩工程应力-应变曲线从 3 个样品每个最低的
和最高的密度泡沫如图 1 所示。它见过的流动应力是一个功能强大
相对密度和曲线显示的典型的形状,可分为三个区域,1) 线性
弹性区、2) 折叠区域,最后,3) 在其中的致密化区域属性方法
那些完全致密的合金。这也是后的载荷下降出现低密度泡沫,
初始弹性伸长较高的密度的同时表现出没有负载下降。此外,应力振荡
发生在低密度样品同时更高的密度的表明的折叠区域基本上是
单调增加的压力在整个测试。在折叠区域的流动应力增加作为
相对密度增加,如所料,但致密化率也更高,更密集
样品。在所有情况下很容易取得超过 60%的菌株.
泡沫,然后在 shpb 实验和测试图 2 显示了典型的应力-应变曲线的三个泡沫
不同密度测试在 2310年
3
s
21
。再次,泡沫的流动应力值被认为是一个强大
相对密度函数虽然还应指出,在应力下的领域应变曲线,其中
规模与吸收的能量,不做与密度成线性比例。根据各自领域
曲线计算了 5%和 25%应变,后者是在可获得的最大应变之间
shpb 实验和数据中的应变率最低绘制的图 3 中的密度函数。图 4
显示数据的泡沫,单独测量密度的 0.52gcm
23
,在一系列的应变测试
利率从准静态到 2310年
3
s
21
达 ;25%应变。即使当在密度较小的变化
图 2。应力与应变关系曲线在 2310年
3
s
21
为三种不同的样品 (单独衡量) 密度。
铝泡沫 517 第 43,卷号 6
都删除,目前仍没有明确应变率的影响在此应变范围和下的领域内
曲线,是近似相等。没有明显的应变率敏感性是同意
其他观测这及其他铝合金 [10,11]。
在准静态压缩测试期间录得的变形事件的顺序和
在图 5 中提出了一个典型的记录的多个帧。在每个帧的时间标记和
压缩载荷轴是水平。帧 1,0 年代,显示包含几个变形的区域
细胞。只要压缩开始细胞壁的最薄部分近似平行于
压缩轴开始扣了,20 多岁。在变形的稍后阶段,在 90 年代和 120s,帧细胞
墙正常压缩轴向诱导拉伸应变引起撕裂。它可能还会注意到,
变形是高度非均匀和左边单元格未完全变形而
相邻的是几乎完全封闭的起来
细胞壁的镜检可见明确的证据的原始粉末颗粒,图
6 ;墙上由许多粒子烧结在一起确认没有完全熔化做成
发生。这些表面也表现出粒子由 EDS 测量作为
丰富的钛 (在图 6 中带箭头)。的
正在翻譯中..
結果 (中文) 2:[復制]
復制成功!
CRUSHING OF ALUMINUM CLOSED CELL FOAMS:
DENSITY AND STRAIN RATE EFFECTS
I.W. Hall, M. Guden* and C.-J. Yu

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716 *Izmir Yuksek
Teknoloji Enstitusu, Izmir, Turkey

Fraunhofer Center-Delaware, 501 Wyoming Road,
Newark, DE 19716
(Received October 1, 1999)
(Accepted in revised form April 11, 2000)
Introduction
Potential applications of metal foams include light weight cores for sandwich panels, shells and tubes
where the foam can increase the resistance to local buckling, increase the impact resistance, and
improve the energy absorbing capacity of the structure [1,2]. This latter property offers potential uses
in transportation applications where, for example, foam-filling of the hollow sections of automobiles,
such as fenders, may reduce damage and injuries resulting from impact accidents. For this type of
application, aluminum foam is more suitable than a polymeric foam, because it deforms plastically
under impact and with essentially no spring back, preventing further damage [3]. Other important
advantages of using aluminum foams over polymeric foams include high fire resistance and insensitivity to cold and hot weather and humidity [3].
Impact accidents produce loading rates which are higher than those of static or quasi-static rates and
which may significantly alter mechanical response of the materials. Therefore, in designing with
metallic foams as energy absorbing fillers, mechanical properties are needed for strain rates corresponding to those created by impact events. Quasi-static mechanical behavior of metallic foams has
been fairly extensively studied and reported, e.g. [3–5], but data concerning high strain rate mechanical
behavior of these materials are, however, only just becoming available and are rather sparse [6,7]. This
study was initiated, therefore, to study the high strain rate mechanical behavior of a range of metallic
foams, and to compare it with quasi-static behavior and, hence, determine any effect on energy
absorbing capacity. Microscopic observations were also made in order to clarify the deformation
mechanisms involved during crushing of the foam.
Material and Testing Methods
The metal foam investigated in this study was manufactured by the Fraunhofer Center - Delaware, using
a patented powder metallurgical technique [8]. One of the advantages of this method is that it is possible
to manufacture complex structures to near net shapes. The foam was prepared using 6061-Al alloy
powder and TiH2as the foaming agent and was supplied as rectangular plate (50 mm thick and 100 mm
wide) with a typical closed cell structure. The cell size varied somewhat through the thickness and
Scripta mater. 43 (2000) 515–521
www.elsevier.com/locate/scriptamat
1359-6462/00/$–see front matter. © 2000 Acta Metallurgica Inc. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S1359-6462(00)00460-7
resulted, therefore, in a slight density gradient. Typical cell sizes were 4 –5mm in the mid-sections and
2–3mm near to the external surfaces.
Quasi-static compression tests were conducted using a displacement controlled Instron machine at
an initial strain rate of 1.5310
23
s
21
. High strain rate tests were conducted using a compression-type
Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB), also known as a Kolsky Bar. Briefly, in this technique a
cylindrical specimen is mounted between the long incident and transmitter bars, while a shorter striker
bar is used to impact the end of the incident bar. This impact creates a compressive pulse which travels
down the incident bar and into the specimen which then deforms as it is sandwiched between incident
and transmitter bars.
Conventionally, the strains measured by strain gages on the incident and transmitter bars are then
used to determine strain rate, strain and stress in the specimen using one dimensional elastic wave
analysis [9]. However, tests on foams violate several of the fundamental assumptions of this type of
analysis: for example, the volume does not remain constant during testing and the elastic wave velocity
depends on the density which itself changes during the test. Nevertheless, and bearing in mind that these
are non-standard tests with limitations, it is found that conventionally-reduced SHPB foam data
resemble the stress-strain curves which would be anticipated from quasi-static tests. Consequently, and
also since an acceptable alternative means of data presentation has not yet been developed, the data are
presented as engineering stressvs.engineering strain curves.
High strain rate tests were conducted on the foam at strain rates up to;2.0310
3
s
21
. The strain
rates involved in automobiles during impact accidents are most frequently in the range between;13
10
2
and;1310
3
s
21
and the investigated strain rates are, therefore, relevant to impacts involved in
such accidents.
The cylindrical foam specimens were 18mm in diameter and 12mm tall. Some scatter was observed
in the data (see Fig. 1 below) but was not reduced by the use of larger samples. The diameter of the
samples was slightly less than that of the bars (19mm) and, due to the small Poisson’s ratio of the foam,
specimen diameters during deformation never exceeded the bar diameter within the studied strain levels
up to;60% strain. The relatively large diameter of the SHPB used was advantageous, since larger
volumes of foam could be tested, thus reducing statistical scatter somewhat. By conducting tests on
identically sized specimens in the Instron, any significant effect of specimen volume on the measured
flow stress was avoided.
Flow stresses reported below were determined at 10% strain since a) severe initial stress drops were
noted in many of the tests and b) an inherent feature of the SHPB apparatus is that flow stress values
Figure 1. Quasi-static eng. stress vs. eng. strain curves for samples of two different nominal densities.
ALUMINUM FOAMS 516 Vol. 43, No. 6
at small strains, such as the yield strain, can not be determined due to the absence of stress equilibrium
in the early stages of the test.
Foam blocks with average densities of 0.34, 0.47, 0.57 and 0.82gcm
23
were used. Specimens were
core-drilled through the thickness direction of the foam blocks and then individually weighed and
measured in order to calculate the actual and relative densities before testing. The relative density,r*,
is calculated as:
r*5
rf
rm
3100% (1)
where f and m refer to the foam and precursor (matrix) alloy respectively. The average relative densities
of the four foam blocks were, therefore, 12.6%, 17.4%, 21.1% and 30.4% respectively.
Results
Typical quasi-static compressive engineering stress-strain curves from 3 samples of each of the lowest
and highest density foams are shown in Fig. 1. It is seen that the flow stress is a strong function of
relative density and the curves show the typical shape which may be divided into three regions, 1) linear
elastic region, 2) collapse region and finally, 3) a densification region in which the properties approach
those of fully-dense alloy. It is also seen that, for the low density foams, a load drop occurs after the
initial elastic extension while the higher density ones exhibited no load drop. Also, stress oscillations
occur in the collapse region of low density samples while the higher density ones showed an essentially
monotonic increase in stress throughout the tests. The flow stress in the collapse region increased as the
relative density increased, as expected, but the rate of densification was also higher in the denser
samples. Strains in excess of 60% were easily achieved in all cases.
Foams were then tested in the SHPB and Fig. 2 shows typical stress-strain curves for foams of three
different densities tested at 2310
3
s
21
. Again, the flow stress values of the foam are seen to be a strong
function of relative density although it is also noted that the areas under the stress strain curves, which
scale with the energy absorbed, do not scale linearly with the density. The respective areas under the
curves were calculated between 5% and 25% strain, the latter being the maximum strain obtainable at
the lowest strain rate in the SHPB, and the data are plotted as a function of density in Fig. 3. Fig. 4
shows data for foams, with individually measured densities of 0.52gcm
23
, tested over a range of strain
rates from quasi-static to 2310
3
s
21
and up to;25% strain. Even when minor variations in density
Figure 2. Stress vs. strain curves at 2310
3
s
21
for samples of three different (individually measured) densities.
ALUMINUM FOAMS 517 Vol. 43, No. 6
are removed, there is still no unequivocal effect of strain rate within this strain range and the areas under
the curves, were approximately equal. The absence of marked strain rate sensitivity is in agreement with
other observations for this and other aluminum alloys [10,11].
The sequence of deformation events was recorded during quasi-static compression testing and
several frames of a typical record are presented in Fig. 5. The time at each frame is marked and the
compression loading axis was horizontal. Frame 1, 0s, shows an undeformed region containing several
cells. As soon as compression starts the thinnest sections of cell walls approximately parallel to the
compression axis start to buckle, 20s. In the later stages of deformation, frames at 90s and 120s, cell
walls normal to the compression axis tear due to the induced tensile strains. It may also be noted that
deformation is highly inhomogeneous and that cells to the left are completely undeformed while
adjacent ones are almost totally closed up.
Microscopic examination of cell walls showed clear evidence of the original powder particles, Fig.
6; the walls were made up of many particles sintered together confirming that complete melting had not
occurred. These surfaces also exhibited particles which were identified by EDS measurements as being
rich in Ti (arrowed in Fig. 6). The
正在翻譯中..
結果 (中文) 3:[復制]
復制成功!
压碎铝闭孔泡沫:
密度和应变率的影响
怀特岛的大厅,M. guden *和C - J.玉

机械工程系,德拉瓦大学,纽瓦克,德19716×伊兹密尔yuksek
teknoloji enstitusu,伊兹密尔,土耳其

弗劳恩霍夫中心特拉华,怀俄明路501号,
纽瓦克,德19716
(1999年10月1日)
(修改稿2000年4月11日接受

)介绍金属泡沫材料的潜在应用包括夹心板重量轻芯,壳和管
在泡沫可以增加抵抗局部屈曲,提高耐冲击性,和
提高能量吸收结构[1,2]能力。这后者的属性提供了潜在的用途
在交通运输中的应用,例如,泡沫的汽车的空心部分填充,
如挡泥板,可以减少损伤和损伤的影响而导致的事故。这种类型的
应用,泡沫铝比聚合物泡沫更合适,因为它的塑性变形
冲击下,基本上没有回弹,防止进一步损坏[ 3 ]。其他重要的
在聚合物泡沫的泡沫铝具有阻燃性和抗寒冷和炎热的天气和湿度[ 3 ]。
碰撞事故的生产负荷率均高于静态或准静态速率和
可以显著改变材料的力学响应。因此,在
泡沫金属材料作为能量吸收填料设计,力学性能的应变率对应的事件创造所需的影响。泡沫金属材料的准静态力学行为具有相当广泛的研究和报道
,例如[ 5 ] 3–,但关于这些材料的高应变率力学
行为数据,然而,刚刚成为可用的,而稀疏[ 6,7 ]。这
研究开始,因此,研究的范围内的金属
泡沫材料的高应变率下的力学行为,并与准静态行为的比较,因此,确定的能量吸收能力的影响
任何。显微观察也为了澄清过程中泡沫破碎的变形
机制。
材料和试验方法
金属泡沫研究的弗劳恩霍夫中心-特拉华制造,使用
专利的粉末冶金技术[ 8 ]。这种方法的一个优点是,它是可能的
制造复杂结构的近净形状。采用6061铝合金制备的泡沫
粉和tih2as发泡剂和提供矩形板(50毫米厚,100毫米
宽)与一个典型的闭孔结构。细胞的大小有些不同的厚度和
scripta母校。43(2000)515–521
www.elsevier。COM /定位/ scriptamat
1359-6462 / 00元/–看到前面的问题。2000©[J].金属公司出版由Elsevier科学有限公司保留所有权利。
PII:s1359-6462(00)00460-7
所导致的,因此,在一个轻微的密度梯度。典型的细胞大小为4–5mm的中间部分和
2–3mm靠近外表面。
准静态压缩试验进行了使用位移控制的英斯特朗机在
初始应变率1.5310
23

21
。高应变率测试使用的压缩型
进行分离式霍普金森压杆(SHPB),也被称为一个Kolsky酒吧。简要地说,在这一技术
圆柱试样装长入射和发射杆之间,而较短的前锋
酒吧是用来影响入射杆端。这种影响产生的压缩脉冲传播的
下入射杆与试样的变形,然后在它夹事件
和发射机杆之间。
常规,由应变计测量的入射和发射酒吧菌株进行
用于确定应变率,应变和应力的试样采用一维弹性波
分析[ 9 ]。不过,测试泡沫违反几个这类
分析的基本假设:例如,体积不测试和弹性波速度
期间保持不变,取决于它本身在测试过程中的变化的密度。然而,与铭记这些
是非标准试验的局限性,发现传统的SHPB数据
降低泡沫类似的应力-应变曲线可以从静态试验预期。因此,与
也因为数据表示一个可接受的替代手段尚未被开发,数据
作为工程stressvs.engineering应变曲线。
高应变率测试,在应变率对泡沫进行;2.0310
3

21
。应变
在汽车碰撞事故率在最经常的范围在13
;10
2
和;1310
3

21
和调查的应变率,因此,参与
此类事故的影响有关。
圆柱形泡沫试样直径18mm和12mm高。一些分散的数据中观察到的
(见图1)而不是通过大样本的使用减少了。
样品的直径略小于的酒吧(19mm),由于泡沫体的小的泊松比,
试样直径变形不超过钢筋直径在研究应变水平
多达60%株。在SHPB用于比较大的直径是有利的,因为较大的
体积的泡沫可以测试,因此稍微减少统计散射。通过对
相同大小的试样进行测试的英斯特朗,避免了样品量的任何重大影响测量
流动应力。
流动应力报告如下测定在10%应变由于)严重的初始应力下降
指出在许多试验和B)的SHPB装置固有的特点是流动应力值
图1。准静态应力应变曲线与工程学科的两个不同的标称密度的泡沫铝样品。
516卷43,6号
在小应变,如屈服应变,不能因为要在测试的早期阶段,应力平衡
没有确定。
与0.34,0.47的平均密度泡沫块,0.57和23
是0.82gcm
。标本
通过对泡沫芯块厚度方向,然后单独称重和测量
为了测试之前,计算实际的密度和相对密度。相对密度,R *,
计算为:
R×5
射频
RM
3100%(1)
F和M指的是泡沫和前体(矩阵)合金分别。四的泡沫块的平均相对密度
进行,因此,12.6%,17。4%,21.1%和30.4%分别。
结果
典型的准静态压缩的工程应力-应变曲线从3个样品的每一个最低和最高密度的泡沫
在图1所示。可以看出,流动应力是一个强大的
相对密度函数和曲线显示典型的形状可分为三个区域,1)线性
弹性区,2)塌陷区的最后,3)的性能的方法
那些完全致密的合金的致密区。可以看出,对于低密度泡沫,负载下降时的
初始弹性延伸而没有表现出高密度的后负荷下降。同时,应力振荡
发生在低浓度样品的塌陷区,高密度的显示应力基本上
单调增加整个试验。在塌陷区的流动应力随
相对密度增加,如预期,但其致密化率也较高,在密集的
样品。超过60%的菌株在所有情况下,很容易实现的。
泡沫在SHPB和图2测试表明三
不同密度的测试在2310
3

21
泡沫的典型的应力-应变曲线。再次,泡沫的流动应力值被看作是一个强大的
相对密度函数虽然还指出,应力应变曲线下面积,这
规模与吸收的能量,不随密度的尺度。计算5%和25%菌株之间在
曲线的各个区域,后者获得的最大应变在
应变率最低的SHPB,和数据被绘制成图3中密度函数。图4显示了数据
泡沫,与单独测量密度的0.52gcm
23
,测试在一个范围内的应变
率从准静态2310
3

21
到;25%株。即使在
图2密度的微小变化。在2310
3

21
三种样品的应力–应变曲线(单独测量)的密度。
泡沫铝517卷43,6号
后,仍然没有明确的应变率效应在应变范围和
曲线下面积,约等于。应变速率敏感性明显缺失与
其他观测和其他铝合金[10,11]协议。
变形事件顺序记录在准静态压缩试验和
几个典型的记录帧被呈现在图5。在每一帧的时间是显着的,
压缩加载轴是水平的。框架1,0,显示包含几个
细胞未变形区。当压缩启动细胞壁大致平行于压缩轴
开始扣,20多岁的最薄的部分。在变形的后期阶段,在90s、120s帧,
正常细胞壁由于诱导的拉伸应变压缩轴撕裂。它也可能会发现
变形是高度不均匀,细胞的左边是完全不变形时
相邻的几乎是完全封闭起来。
细胞壁的显微镜检查显示的原始粉末颗粒的明确证据,图
6;墙是由许多颗粒烧结在一起确认完全熔化并没有
发生。这些表面上也表现出由EDS测量确定为
富Ti颗粒(箭头图6)。的
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