, which was the wrong formula to find the derivatives of functions using<br>first principles. The NCTM (2014) argues that procedural knowledge is built on conceptual knowledge.<br>The results suggest that learners lack both the procedural and conceptual knowledge of calculus in<br>finding the derivatives of the functions using first principles. Learners themselves claim that some of<br>the difficulties are caused by the teacher’s approach of just wanting them to memorise formulas<br>without explaining the meaning of the formulas. These results are supported by Axtell (2006) and<br>Muzangwa and Chifamba (2012), claiming that teaching approaches used by teachers of calculus<br>focused on procedural understanding only rather than starting with conceptual knowledge.
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