CBT Versus No Treatment on Chronic NPLow-quality evidence from 3 RCTs with high risk of bias 19,26,28 (89 participants with chronic NP) indicated that CBT was more effective than no treatment for pain relief in the short-term (SMD −0.58, 95% CI −1.01 to −0.16; Figure 4). The outcome was downgraded from high to low quality dueto serious imprecision and serious limitation in the design and implementation.2 of these RCTs (46 participants) evaluated also disability and psychological indicators at short-term follow-up: there was low quality evidence that CBT had a significant positive benefit for disability (SMD −0.61, 95% CI −1.21 to −0.01; Figure 4) and quality of life (SMD −0.93, 95% CI −1.54 to −0.31), whereas no effect was found on kinesiophobia (MD −6.69, 95% CI −13.91 to 0.53) and distress (SMD −0.41, 95% CI −0.99 to 0.18).