Another characteristic is whether the self-talk cues are assigned or self-selected. Studies were initially based on assigned self-talk (e.g., Van Raalte et al., 1995) to ensure that appropriate cues were selected and used by participants. However, in some recent studies researchers have allowed the selection of self-talk cues by participants either from a designated list (e.g., Schu¨ler & Langens, 2007) or their own preference (Malouff & Murphy, 2006). The third characteristic is whether self-talk is internal (covert, silent) or external (overt, out loud). With regard to overtness, researchers initially preferred external self-talk to ensure that self-talk cues were actually used (Ming & Martin, 1996). Nevertheless, feedback from participants has shown that some find it awkward and distracting to use external self-talk (e.g., Masciana, Van Raalte, Brewer, Brandon, & Coughlin, 2001), and, therefore, in many subsequent studies participants have been advised to use internal self-talk or have been given the choice between internal and external self-talk (e.g., Harvey, Van Raalte, & Brewer, 2002). What is important to find out regarding the above characteristics is whether providing choice with regard to the use of the self-talk cues (for both content and overtness) influences the effectiveness. We hypothesized that self-selected cues and overtness will be more effective than assigned.